Next-Gen Health Analysis | Advanced Health Platform

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Disease Scores

Take the guesswork out of your health. Understand your health risk for diseases that matter.

Biological Pathways

Pinpoint the root causes behind your health risks - beacuse disease doesn't follow the same path for everyone.

Biomarker Lookup

Go beyond basic bloodwork. Search biomarkers from the latest scientific research and learn their healthy ranges, how to improve them and what they reveal about your disease risk.

Action Plan

Molecular You has 100s of lifestyle recommendations. Find out which ones work best for you based on the latest scientific research.

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The Science Behind Molecular You

The Molecular You testing platform is built by visionary experts like Dr. Murdoc Khaleghi, MD, MBA—a world leader in technology-driven healthcare—to set a new standard for precision health. Every insight is rooted in rigorous scientific validation, peer-reviewed research, and advanced multi-omic analysis, ensuring providers receive clinically relevant, actionable data to guide patient care.

By integrating proteomic and metabolomic data, Molecular You delivers a comprehensive health assessment that translates easily accessed biomarker scores into meaningful clinical impact.

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Guided by expertise—Dr. Murdoc Khaleghi and Molecular You’s medical team ensure every recommendation is backed by science.

Meet our team of experts and explore the science behind our approach:

Health Areas + Biomarkers

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, memory loss, and the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates in the brain.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Alpha-aminoadipic acid is a lysine metabolism intermediate and potential biomarker for oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Elevated levels have been associated with type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and insulin resistance. Its role in oxidative pathways makes it a valuable marker for metabolic health.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. Its role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Dysregulated levels may indicate hepatic or metabolic dysfunction, and its role in energy balance and stress responses makes it critical in cellular health. Alterations in asparagine metabolism are also being explored in cancer biology.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Clusterin is a glycoprotein involved in apoptosis, lipid transport, and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers, while low levels may impair cellular stress responses. It is a marker of cellular homeostasis and aging-related diseases.

Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in arterial walls, leading to reduced blood flow and an increased risk of heart attack and stroke.

ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoB-100 is the main structural protein of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and VLDL, directly reflecting atherogenic lipoproteins in circulation. Elevated levels are a key marker of cardiovascular disease risk and dyslipidemia. ApoB-100 measurement is critical for assessing atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome.
ApoC-II is a cofactor for lipoprotein lipase, essential for triglyceride metabolism. Deficiency results in hypertriglyceridemia and associated metabolic complications, while elevated levels can contribute to dyslipidemia. Its function in regulating lipid clearance is critical for maintaining metabolic balance.
ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C4BPα is part of the complement system, regulating immune responses and protecting against excessive inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with autoimmune diseases, thrombosis, and inflammation, while low levels can impair immune defense. It plays a critical role in maintaining immune balance and preventing overactivation of complement pathways.
Cadherin-5 is an endothelial cell adhesion protein crucial for vascular integrity and permeability. Dysregulated levels are implicated in vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and angiogenesis-related cancers, as well as inflammation-induced endothelial damage. It is essential for maintaining endothelial barrier function and tissue repair.
CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Hemopexin binds free heme, preventing oxidative damage and aiding in heme clearance. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and hemolysis, while low levels can impair heme detoxification and exacerbate oxidative stress. It is vital for protecting tissues from free heme toxicity.

The acid labile subunit stabilizes complexes of insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins, prolonging their half-life. Deficiencies can impair growth factor signaling, affecting growth and metabolism, while elevated levels are associated with metabolic disturbances. It supports hormonal regulation and growth.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Lumican is a proteoglycan involved in extracellular matrix organization and collagen fibril formation. Dysregulated levels are associated with fibrosis, inflammation, and cancer, reflecting tissue remodeling and repair processes. It is essential for maintaining connective tissue structure and integrity.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Tetranectin is a protein involved in tissue remodeling, fibrinolysis, and bone health. Altered levels are associated with cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular diseases. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and regulating bone metabolism.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Vitamin K-dependent protein S acts as a cofactor for anticoagulant proteins, regulating blood clotting and preventing thrombosis. Deficiencies are associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events, while elevated levels are less clinically significant. It is vital for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Vitamin K-dependent protein Z supports coagulation by stabilizing clotting factors and preventing excessive clot breakdown. Low levels are linked to bleeding disorders, while elevated levels may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for ensuring proper clot formation and stability.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) encompasses a range of conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels, including coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias.

Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A, is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.

Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Uric acid is the final product of purine metabolism, serving as an antioxidant at normal levels but pro-inflammatory when elevated. High levels are associated with gout, kidney stones, and cardiovascular diseases, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or dietary deficiencies.
Zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG) is a lipid-mobilizing factor involved in metabolic regulation and immune function. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, cachexia, and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism and immune responses. It plays a key role in energy homeostasis and fat metabolism.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition characterized by airflow obstruction, inflammation, and lung tissue damage, leading to breathing difficulties.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. Dysregulated levels are linked to neurological disorders, metabolic dysfunction, and energy imbalances. It is critical for cellular function and neurotransmission.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a component of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and inflammation, while deficiencies can lead to bleeding disorders. It plays a vital role in coagulation and wound healing.
The fibrinogen beta chain is another subunit of fibrinogen, essential for blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to increased clotting risk and inflammation, while deficiencies can cause bleeding disorders. It is a critical marker for hemostatic and vascular health.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Glutamic acid is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in brain function, metabolism, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is a key marker for neurological and metabolic health.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.

Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
This protein plays a role in extracellular matrix stabilization and inflammation regulation. Dysregulated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions, cancer, and tissue remodeling disorders. It is crucial for immune balance and tissue integrity.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
Ornithine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle, playing a role in ammonia detoxification and amino acid metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, while deficiencies can impair detoxification and nitrogen balance. It is essential for protein metabolism and waste removal.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Depression

Depression is a complex mood disorder linked to neurotransmitter imbalances, inflammation, and metabolic dysregulation, affecting emotional and cognitive function.

CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a subunit of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies impair coagulation and wound healing. It is essential for maintaining hemostasis and responding to vascular injury.
The fibrinogen beta chain contributes to the structure of fibrinogen and plays a role in blood clot formation and stability. Abnormal levels are associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammation. It is crucial for effective clot formation and vascular repair.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, playing a crucial role in regulating neuronal excitability and mood. Dysregulated levels are associated with anxiety disorders, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is a key marker for neurological and mental health.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.

Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic conditions, including Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis, that cause inflammation of the digestive tract, leading to pain, diarrhea, and nutrient malabsorption.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. Dysregulated levels are linked to neurological disorders, metabolic dysfunction, and energy imbalances. It is critical for cellular function and neurotransmission.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Ceruloplasmin is a copper-binding protein involved in iron metabolism and antioxidant defense. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and liver disease, while low levels may indicate Wilson’s disease or copper deficiency. It plays a crucial role in oxidative stress regulation and metal transport.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Glucose is a primary energy source for cells, regulated by insulin and glucagon. Abnormal levels are associated with diabetes, metabolic disorders, and energy imbalances. It is a critical marker for metabolic health and energy homeostasis.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.

Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid important for collagen formation, wound healing, and cellular stress responses. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or tissue repair, while deficiencies can impair skin and connective tissue integrity. It plays a key role in structural and metabolic health.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in inflammatory responses and immune regulation. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, infections, and cancer, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It serves as a biomarker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.

Liver Disease

Liver disease encompasses a range of conditions affecting liver function, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, and fatty liver disease, which can lead to metabolic disturbances and organ failure.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin is a serine protease inhibitor involved in modulating inflammation and protecting tissues from proteolytic damage. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while deficiencies may impair immune function. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and immune balance.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Beta-2-microglobulin is a component of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) involved in immune response regulation. Elevated levels are associated with kidney dysfunction, autoimmune diseases, and certain cancers. It serves as a marker for immune activation and renal function.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Cholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, regulating nerve signal transmission. Altered levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, pesticide exposure, and liver dysfunction. It is an important marker for neurological and hepatic health.
Complement C7 is part of the membrane attack complex, contributing to immune-mediated cell lysis. Deficiencies can impair the body's ability to fight bacterial infections, while elevated levels are linked to autoimmune conditions. It is critical for immune defense.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Gelsolin is an actin-binding protein involved in cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility. It plays a role in immune responses and tissue repair, with altered levels associated with neurodegeneration, inflammation, and sepsis. It is important for maintaining cellular integrity.
Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.

Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Kallistatin is a serine protease inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective properties. Elevated levels are linked to protective cardiovascular effects, while deficiencies may contribute to hypertension and oxidative stress. It plays a role in vascular health and immune modulation.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid important for collagen formation, wound healing, and cellular stress responses. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or tissue repair, while deficiencies can impair skin and connective tissue integrity. It plays a key role in structural and metabolic health.
Prothrombin is a precursor to thrombin, essential for blood clot formation. Altered levels can lead to bleeding disorders or increased thrombotic risk. It is a critical marker for coagulation and hemostasis.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.
Vitamin D-binding protein is a transporter of vitamin D metabolites, essential for calcium homeostasis and immune regulation. Altered levels are linked to vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and chronic diseases. It plays a critical role in maintaining vitamin D availability and metabolic health.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic liver disorder characterized by fat accumulation in liver cells, which can progress to inflammation, fibrosis, and cirrhosis.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A, is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.

Glucose is a primary energy source for cells, regulated by insulin and glucagon. Abnormal levels are associated with diabetes, metabolic disorders, and energy imbalances. It is a critical marker for metabolic health and energy homeostasis.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.
IGFBP-3 is the primary carrier of insulin-like growth factors in circulation, regulating their bioavailability and activity. Elevated levels are associated with growth disorders and metabolic conditions, while deficiencies may impair cell growth and repair. It plays a key role in endocrine and metabolic regulation.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid involved in bile acid conjugation, osmoregulation, and antioxidant defense. It supports cardiovascular health, neurological function, and immune regulation. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while supplementation may provide protective effects.
Vitamin D-binding protein is a transporter of vitamin D metabolites, essential for calcium homeostasis and immune regulation. Altered levels are linked to vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and chronic diseases. It plays a critical role in maintaining vitamin D availability and metabolic health.

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder associated with irregular ovulation, insulin resistance, and metabolic dysfunction, increasing the risk of infertility and chronic diseases.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alanine is a non-essential amino acid central to glucose metabolism and energy production, acting as a carrier of nitrogen between tissues. Increased alanine levels may reflect metabolic conditions such as insulin resistance, while low levels can indicate impaired protein metabolism or malnutrition. Its balance is crucial for maintaining normal gluconeogenesis and nitrogen balance.
Fetuin-A is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid crucial for nitric oxide production, immune function, and wound healing. Deficiencies are associated with impaired endothelial function, increased cardiovascular risk, and immune suppression, while excessive levels can exacerbate certain metabolic disorders. It is vital for maintaining vascular and metabolic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and liver function. Deficiencies can lead to fatty liver, cognitive decline, and muscle dysfunction, while optimal levels support brain and liver health. It is critical for maintaining cellular and neurological integrity.
Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.
Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification pathways. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or metabolic stress, while deficiencies can impair neurotransmitter balance and antioxidant defenses. It supports cellular metabolism and tissue repair.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.

Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid important for protein synthesis, energy production, and immune function. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or insulin resistance, while deficiencies can impair muscle function and immune responses. It is crucial for metabolic and muscular health.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, energy production, and muscle repair. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle health and immune function. It supports anabolic processes and energy metabolism.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Methionine-sulfoxide is an oxidized form of methionine, reflecting oxidative stress in the body. Elevated levels are associated with aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular conditions. It serves as a marker of cellular oxidative damage and the body’s ability to manage reactive oxygen species.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and protein building. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies affect protein synthesis and brain function. It is important for nervous system and metabolic health.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Serine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and phospholipid metabolism. Deficiencies can impair brain function, immune responses, and cellular growth, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic stress or certain neurological conditions. It is crucial for overall cellular and neurological health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Threonine is an essential amino acid required for protein synthesis, immune function, and gut health. Deficiencies can impair intestinal integrity, muscle growth, and immune responses, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic imbalances. It is critical for maintaining structural and metabolic functions in the body.
Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and thyroid hormone synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies impair neurological and metabolic functions. It plays a central role in neurotransmission and hormonal regulation.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that causes inflammation and joint damage, often leading to pain, stiffness, and disability.

AGP1 is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation, infection, or injury. Elevated levels are markers of systemic inflammation and are associated with conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disorders. AGP1 also reflects changes in immune response and tissue damage.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C1q subunit B is part of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway, critical for initiating immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with autoimmune diseases, such as lupus, and impaired pathogen clearance. It plays a central role in linking innate immunity with inflammation.
Haptoglobin binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage and recycling iron. Elevated levels indicate inflammation or tissue injury, while low levels are linked to hemolytic anemia or liver disease. It is a key marker of inflammation and red blood cell turnover.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.

Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Lysozyme C is an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, contributing to innate immunity. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, infection, and certain cancers, while low levels may indicate immune deficiencies. It is essential for antimicrobial defense and immune function.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in immune regulation and inflammatory responses. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, cancer, and chronic inflammation, reflecting immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Tetranectin is a protein involved in tissue remodeling, fibrinolysis, and bone health. Altered levels are associated with cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular diseases. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and regulating bone metabolism.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and impaired glucose regulation, leading to long-term complications such as cardiovascular disease and neuropathy.

Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Alpha-aminoadipic acid is a lysine metabolism intermediate and potential biomarker for oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Elevated levels have been associated with type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and insulin resistance. Its role in oxidative pathways makes it a valuable marker for metabolic health.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
ApoA-IV plays a role in lipid transport, satiety signaling, and anti-inflammatory processes. High levels are associated with improved metabolic health, while low levels may indicate dyslipidemia or chronic inflammation. Its role in triglyceride metabolism and intestinal lipid absorption highlights its metabolic importance.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism and cellular osmotic balance. Elevated levels may reflect enhanced methylation capacity or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies are linked to cardiovascular disease and poor methylation. It plays a critical role in cardiovascular and hepatic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Gelsolin is a cytoskeletal protein that regulates actin filament remodeling, essential for cell shape and motility. Abnormal levels are linked to inflammatory diseases, cancer progression, and amyloidosis. It is important for cellular stability and response to injury.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.

This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid important for protein synthesis, energy production, and immune function. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or insulin resistance, while deficiencies can impair muscle function and immune responses. It is crucial for metabolic and muscular health.
L-selectin is an adhesion molecule that guides leukocyte migration to sites of inflammation or injury. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammatory conditions and immune dysregulation, while low levels may impair immune surveillance. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and inflammatory responses.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, energy production, and muscle repair. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle health and immune function. It supports anabolic processes and energy metabolism.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Retinol-binding protein 4 is responsible for transporting vitamin A, crucial for vision, immune function, and cellular differentiation. Elevated levels are associated with insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation, while low levels may reflect vitamin A deficiency or malnutrition. It is a key marker for vitamin A status and metabolic health.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, coagulation, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, atherosclerosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies may impair wound healing and cellular adhesion. It plays a role in maintaining vascular health and tissue integrity.

Acute-Phase Protein Response

The acute-phase protein response is a rapid systemic reaction to inflammation, infection, or trauma, characterized by changes in plasma protein levels to support immune defense and tissue repair.

AGP1 is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation, infection, or injury. Elevated levels are markers of systemic inflammation and are associated with conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disorders. AGP1 also reflects changes in immune response and tissue damage.
AAT is another serine protease inhibitor essential for protecting tissues from enzyme-mediated damage, particularly in the lungs. Deficiency of AAT is linked to emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), while elevated levels may occur in response to acute inflammation. AAT plays a key role in maintaining pulmonary and systemic health.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Ceruloplasmin is a copper-carrying protein with antioxidant properties, crucial for iron metabolism and oxidative stress regulation. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and liver diseases, while low levels are associated with Wilson’s disease and neurodegenerative disorders. It serves as a marker for copper metabolism and systemic inflammation.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a subunit of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies impair coagulation and wound healing. It is essential for maintaining hemostasis and responding to vascular injury.

The fibrinogen beta chain contributes to the structure of fibrinogen and plays a role in blood clot formation and stability. Abnormal levels are associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammation. It is crucial for effective clot formation and vascular repair.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Haptoglobin binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage and recycling iron. Elevated levels indicate inflammation or tissue injury, while low levels are linked to hemolytic anemia or liver disease. It is a key marker of inflammation and red blood cell turnover.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.
Serotransferrin is a glycoprotein that transports iron in the blood, supporting hemoglobin synthesis and cellular metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate iron overload or inflammation, while low levels are associated with anemia and malnutrition. It is a key marker of iron metabolism and systemic health.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.

Blood clot breakdown

Once a clot has done its job, this pathway controls its breakdown. Too much breakdown can cause bleeding, while too little allows clots to persist and block blood vessels.

Alpha-2-antiplasmin is a key inhibitor of fibrinolysis, preventing the breakdown of blood clots. Elevated levels may contribute to thrombotic disorders, while deficiencies can result in increased bleeding risk. Its regulation is crucial for maintaining hemostasis and preventing both excessive clotting and hemorrhage.
CPB2 is an enzyme that modulates fibrinolysis and inflammation by inactivating inflammatory mediators and stabilizing blood clots. Dysregulation can lead to excessive clotting or bleeding disorders and is associated with cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for balancing clot formation and breakdown.
CPN is involved in regulating inflammatory peptides and maintaining vascular homeostasis. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and cancer, while deficiencies may impair regulation of complement and kinin systems. It is essential for modulating inflammation and tissue repair.

Plasma protease C1 inhibitor regulates complement activation, protecting against excessive inflammation and tissue damage. Deficiencies are linked to hereditary angioedema, while elevated levels may occur during acute inflammation. It is essential for maintaining immune balance.
Plasminogen is a precursor to plasmin, which is involved in breaking down fibrin clots during fibrinolysis. Deficiencies lead to impaired clot resolution and thrombosis, while elevated activity can cause excessive bleeding. It is critical for balancing clot formation and dissolution.

Blood clot formation

This pathway describes how the body creates a blood clot. Fibrin proteins link together to form a mesh that stabilizes the clot and seals wounds.

Factor V is a clotting protein that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiency or consumption, as in severe liver disease or disseminated intravascular coagulation, can cause bleeding. Persistent activation can increase the risk of venous thrombosis.
Factor XIII stabilizes blood clots by crosslinking fibrin, enhancing clot strength and stability. Deficiency leads to delayed wound healing and bleeding disorders, while elevated activity may contribute to thrombotic conditions. It is critical for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
The B chain of Factor XIII is responsible for stabilizing and transporting the A chain, which is directly involved in clot stabilization. Deficiencies in the B chain impair clot formation and increase bleeding risk, while mutations may contribute to thrombotic conditions. It is crucial for ensuring effective clot integrity and repair.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a component of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and inflammation, while deficiencies can lead to bleeding disorders. It plays a vital role in coagulation and wound healing.

The fibrinogen beta chain is another subunit of fibrinogen, essential for blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to increased clotting risk and inflammation, while deficiencies can cause bleeding disorders. It is a critical marker for hemostatic and vascular health.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

Blood vessel dilation and signaling

This pathway regulates nitric oxide, a molecule that relaxes blood vessels and helps control blood pressure and circulation. Its activity is influenced by related molecules that can block or reduce NO production

Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.

Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Nitro-tyrosine is a modified amino acid formed during nitrosative stress when reactive nitrogen species modify proteins. It serves as a marker of oxidative and inflammatory damage. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic inflammatory disorders.
Ornithine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle, playing a role in ammonia detoxification and amino acid metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, while deficiencies can impair detoxification and nitrogen balance. It is essential for protein metabolism and waste removal.

Blood vessel growth and maintenance

This pathway regulates the growth of new blood vessels. It supports healing and regeneration when balanced, but too much growth can feed tumors, while too little limits recovery in wounds or ischemia.

Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.

Plastin-2 (L-plastin) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Thrombospondin-1 is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, angiogenesis, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer progression, cardiovascular diseases, and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies may impair wound healing. It plays a critical role in regulating cellular communication and vascular health.
Vasorin is a protein involved in vascular remodeling and regulation of cellular proliferation. Dysregulated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases, fibrosis, and tumor progression. It is important for vascular integrity and tissue repair.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Cell growth and repair

This pathway produces polyamines, molecules that support DNA stability, protein synthesis, and cell growth. Their regulation affects immunity, stress responses, and even cancer biology.

Acetyl-ornithine is a derivative of ornithine, an amino acid involved in the urea cycle, which regulates nitrogen metabolism and ammonia detoxification. Abnormal levels may indicate disturbances in urea cycle function, potentially contributing to hyperammonemia or metabolic dysfunctions in the liver. It may also reflect broader disruptions in amino acid metabolism related to malnutrition or inborn errors of metabolism.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
Diacetylspermine is a modified polyamine derived from spermine that reflect s polyamine metabolism and cell proliferation. Elevated levels are strongly associated with cancer progression and metastasis risk. It may also vary with pregnancy and hyper tensive complications such as preeclampsia.
Ornithine is an amino acid central to the urea cycle, aiding in ammonia detoxification and polyamine synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate urea cycle disorders or liver dysfunction, while low levels can impair detoxification processes. It plays a vital role in nitrogen balance and metabolic health.

Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Putrescine is a polyamine involved in cell growth, proliferation, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer and rapid cellular turnover, while deficiencies may impair healing and cellular function. It plays a role in growth regulation
Spermidine is a polyamine involved in cellular growth, autophagy, and aging regulation. Elevated levels are associated with enhanced autophagy and cellular repair, while low levels may contribute to age-related decline and metabolic dysfunction. It supports cellular renewal and longevity.
Spermine is a polyamine involved in D NA stabilization, gene expression, and cellular metabolism. It supports growth in rapidly dividing tissues. Dysregulated metabolism is linked to cancer, aging, and disorders of abnormal cell proliferation.

Detoxification and Oxidative Stress

This pathway helps process sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine. It supports antioxidant production (e.g., glutathione) and detoxification of harmful compounds.

This amino acid is a byproduct of methionine and threonine metabolism, of ten used as a marker of mitochondrial function and oxidative stress. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, oxidative stress, or metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can be seen in malnutrition. It s balance is essential for cellular redox status and amino acid metabolism.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism and cellular osmotic balance. Elevated levels may reflect enhanced methylation capacity or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies are linked to cardiovascular disease and poor methylation. It plays a critical role in cardiovascular and hepatic health.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.

Methionine-sulfoxide is an oxidized form of methionine, reflecting oxidative stress in the body. Elevated levels are associated with aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular conditions. It serves as a marker of cellular oxidative damage and the body’s ability to manage reactive oxygen species.
Sarcosine is a metabolite in the glycine and methionine cycles, linked to methylation and energy metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with prostate cancer progression and metabolic dysfunction, while low levels may indicate impaired methylation. It plays a role in regulating cellular growth and metabolic pathways.
Serine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and phospholipid metabolism. Deficiencies can impair brain function, immune responses, and cellular growth, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic stress or certain neurological conditions. It is crucial for overall cellular and neurological health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.

Fat and Cholesterol transport

This pathway clears triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from the blood after eating. Inefficient clearance leaves behind cholesterol-rich remnants that contribute to atherosclerosis.

ApoA-IV plays a role in lipid transport, satiety signaling, and anti-inflammatory processes. High levels are associated with improved metabolic health, while low levels may indicate dyslipidemia or chronic inflammation. Its role in triglyceride metabolism and intestinal lipid absorption highlights its metabolic importance.
ApoB-100 is the main structural protein of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and VLDL, directly reflecting atherogenic lipoproteins in circulation. Elevated levels are a key marker of cardiovascular disease risk and dyslipidemia. ApoB-100 measurement is critical for assessing atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
ApoC-II is a cofactor for lipoprotein lipase, essential for triglyceride metabolism. Deficiency results in hypertriglyceridemia and associated metabolic complications, while elevated levels can contribute to dyslipidemia. Its function in regulating lipid clearance is critical for maintaining metabolic balance.

ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Phospholipid transfer protein facilitates lipid transport between lipoproteins, aiding in lipid metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport. Abnormal activity is linked to cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders. It is essential for lipid balance and maintaining healthy lipoprotein function.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.

Glycolysis-gluconeogenesis

This is the body’s main energy management pathway. Glycolysis breaks down glucose for fuel, while gluconeogenesis produces glucose when needed to maintain stable blood sugar.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid central to glucose metabolism and energy production, acting as a carrier of nitrogen between tissues. Increased alanine levels may reflect metabolic conditions such as insulin resistance, while low levels can indicate impaired protein metabolism or malnutrition. Its balance is crucial for maintaining normal gluconeogenesis and nitrogen balance.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.

Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.

Hormone Binding and Transport

This pathway controls how hormones travel through the blood, usually bound to carrier proteins. These carriers help regulate how much hormone is available to tissues at any given time.

ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. Its role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.
Retinol-binding protein 4 is responsible for transporting vitamin A, crucial for vision, immune function, and cellular differentiation. Elevated levels are associated with insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation, while low levels may reflect vitamin A deficiency or malnutrition. It is a key marker for vitamin A status and metabolic health.

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Thyroxine-binding globulin transports thyroid hormones in the bloodstream, regulating their availability and activity. Elevated levels may indicate estrogen influence or genetic variations, while low levels are linked to liver disease, protein loss, or hormonal imbalances. It is crucial for maintaining thyroid hormone function and metabolic regulation.
Transthyretin is a transport protein for thyroid hormones and retinol, also serving as a marker of nutritional status. Low levels are associated with malnutrition, liver dysfunction, or amyloid diseases, while elevated levels are less common. It is essential for monitoring nutritional and systemic health.
Vitamin D-binding protein transports vitamin D metabolites in the bloodstream, regulating their bioavailability and activity. Low levels are associated with vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and inflammatory conditions, while elevated levels may indicate increased binding capacity. It is essential for maintaining bone health and immune function.

Immune system activation

This pathway describes how the complement system detects threats and helps the immune system respond. It involves multiple routes of activation that amplify inflammation and mark pathogens for destruction.

C4BPα is part of the complement system, regulating immune responses and protecting against excessive inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with autoimmune diseases, thrombosis, and inflammation, while low levels can impair immune defense. It plays a critical role in maintaining immune balance and preventing overactivation of complement pathways.
Carboxypeptidase N (CPN) is a plasma enzyme that regulates inflammatory peptides, with subunit 2 stabilizing the enzyme in circulation. It inactivates bradykinin and complement fragments, preventing excessive vascular leakage and inflammation. Low activity is linked to recurrent angioedema and abnormal swelling.
C1q subunit B is part of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway, critical for initiating immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with autoimmune diseases, such as lupus, and impaired pathogen clearance. It plays a central role in linking innate immunity with inflammation.
C1r is a serine protease that activates the complement cascade by cleaving C1s, enabling downstream immune responses. Mutations or dysregulation can result in complement-mediated diseases, such as hereditary angioedema or autoimmune disorders. It is key for effective immune activation and complement function.
C1r-like protein shares structural similarity with C1r but its exact role remains less defined, though it may have regulatory functions. Alterations in its expression have been linked to inflammatory and autoimmune processes. Its emerging role in immune modulation warrants further study.
C1s is a serine protease activated by C1r, driving the classical complement cascade by cleaving complement proteins C4 and C2. Mutations can result in immune deficiency syndromes or dysregulated complement activity, contributing to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. It is essential for amplifying the classical complement response.
C2 is a critical component of the classical and lectin complement pathways, aiding in immune defense by forming the C3 convertase. Deficiencies result in immune deficiencies and increased susceptibility to infections, while excessive activity contributes to autoimmune diseases. It is vital for balancing complement activation and immune defense.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.

C4-B is a variant of C4 that contributes to the formation of C3 convertase in the classical and lectin pathways. Abnormal levels are associated with autoimmune conditions, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, or complement deficiencies. It plays a role in immune regulation and inflammation.
Factor B is part of the alternative complement pathway, forming the C3 convertase necessary for complement activation. Dysregulated activity contributes to autoimmune diseases, such as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, while deficiencies impair immune responses. It is a central player in alternative pathway regulation.
Factor D is a serine protease that activates factor B in the alternative pathway, initiating the amplification loop of complement activation. Elevated levels are linked to complement-mediated diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, while deficiencies reduce immune efficacy. It is key for alternative pathway amplification.
Factor H regulates the alternative pathway by inhibiting C3 convertase, protecting host cells from complement attack. Deficiencies or mutations are associated with atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and age-related macular degeneration. It is essential for preventing excessive complement activation and tissue damage.
Factor I inactivates C3b and C4b, ensuring controlled complement activation and preventing immune-mediated tissue damage. Deficiency leads to complement overactivation, increasing susceptibility to infections and autoimmune diseases. It is vital for maintaining immune balance and preventing complement-mediated pathologies.
Ficolin-2 is a recognition molecule of the innate immune system that binds microbial carbohydrates and activates complement. Low levels are associated with increased infection risk, such as tuberculosis, while elevated levels have been linked to cardiovascular disease.
MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.

Innate immunity

This is the body ’s immediate, non-specific defense system. It uses receptors to recognize general patterns of pathogens or tissue damage, triggering a rapid immune response.

ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Ficolin-2 is a recognition molecule of the innate immune system that binds microbial carbohydrates and activates complement. Low levels are associated with increased infection risk, such as tuberculosis, while elevated levels have been linked to cardiovascular disease.
Ficolin-3 is a pattern-recognition molecule involved in the lectin complement pathway, aiding in pathogen clearance and immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with infection and inflammation, while deficiencies increase susceptibility to infections. It plays a vital role in innate immunity.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
Histamine is a biogenic amine produced from histidine, with roles in allergic responses, stomach acid secretion, and neurotransmission. Excess release contributes to allergies, asthma, and anaphylaxis, while deficiency may impair gastric or neurological function.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Lysozyme C is an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, contributing to innate immunity. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, infection, and certain cancers, while low levels may indicate immune deficiencies. It is essential for antimicrobial defense and immune function.

MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.
Mannose-binding protein C is a pattern-recognition molecule in the lectin complement pathway, aiding in pathogen clearance. Low levels are linked to increased infection risk, while elevated levels may reflect immune activation or inflammation. It is critical for innate immunity and complement-mediated
defense.
Plastin-2 (L-plastin ) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in inflammatory responses and immune regulation. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, infections, and cancer, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It serves as a biomarker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Tenascin-C is an extracellular matrix protein produced during tissue injury, inflammation, and repair. Normally scarce in circulation, it s appearance reflects active tissue remodeling or fibrosis. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases.

Iron and Red Blood Cell status

This pathway regulates how the body transports, stores, and recycles iron and heme. Proper balance supports red blood cell health, while disruption can cause anemia, iron overload, or oxidative injury.

Ceruloplasmin is a copper-binding protein involved in iron metabolism and antioxidant defense. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and liver disease, while low levels may indicate Wilson’s disease or copper deficiency. It plays a crucial role in oxidative stress regulation and metal transport.
Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
Hemoglobin subunit alpha 1 is a component of hemoglobin, essential for oxygen transport in red blood cells. Abnormal levels are associated with anemia, thalassemia, and other hematological disorders. It is critical for maintaining oxygen delivery and red blood cell function.

Hemopexin binds free heme, preventing oxidative damage and aiding in heme clearance. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and hemolysis, while low levels can impair heme detoxification and exacerbate oxidative stress. It is vital for protecting tissues from free heme toxicity.
Protein AMBP binds and transports small molecules like retinoids and lipids, playing a role in antioxidant defense and immune function. Abnormal levels are associated with kidney dysfunction and inflammatory diseases. It is important for maintaining transport and detoxification processes.
Serotransferrin is a glycoprotein that transports iron in the blood, supporting hemoglobin synthesis and cellular metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate iron overload or inflammation, while low levels are associated with anemia and malnutrition. It is a key marker of iron metabolism and systemic health.

Microbiome-linked metabolites

Gut bacteria convert certain nutrients (like choline and carnitine) into metabolites that circulate in the body. Some of these, like TMAO, can affect cardiovascular and metabolic health.

Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.
Proline-betaine is a metabolite derived from dietary sources, particularly in citrus fruits, and reflects dietary intake and gut metabolism. Elevated levels may suggest dietary imbalances or altered gut function. It serves as a marker of nutrient intake and microbiota activity.

Sarcosine is a metabolite in the glycine and methionine cycles, linked to methylation and energy metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with prostate cancer progression and metabolic dysfunction, while low levels may indicate impaired methylation. It plays a role in regulating cellular growth and metabolic pathways.
Trigonelline is a metabolite found in coffee and certain plants, linked to glucose metabolism and neuroprotection. Elevated levels may reflect dietary intake or protective effects against metabolic disorders, while low levels have limited clinical associations. It is being studied for its role in metabolic and brain health.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Tyramine is a trace amine derived from tyrosine that promotes release of norepinephrine and other catecholamines. It influences blood pressure and cardiovascular function and is found in fermented foods. Excess levels, particularly with monoamine oxidase inhibitor use, can trigger hyper tensive crises.

Neurotransmitter Metabolism

Neurotransmitter metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and regulation of signaling molecules essential for brain function, mood regulation, and neural communication.

Dopa is a precursor of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, central to catecholamine synthesis. Plasma levels reflect sympathetic nervous system activity and stress response. Abnormal concentrations are linked to autonomic dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, and stress-related disorders.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, critical for maintaining neuronal balance and reducing excitatory signals. Dysregulated levels are linked to anxiety, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is essential for normal brain function and mood regulation.
Glutamic acid is an amino acid and neurotransmitter involved in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and excitatory signaling in the brain. Elevated levels are linked to neurotoxicity and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies impair neurotransmission. It plays a key role in brain function and metabolic health.
Histamine is a biogenic amine produced from histidine, with roles in allergic responses, stomach acid secretion, and neurotransmission. Excess release contributes to allergies, asthma, and anaphylaxis, while deficiency may impair gastric or neurological function.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and protein building. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies affect protein synthesis and brain function. It is important for the nervous system and metabolic health.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, gastrointestinal function, and platelet aggregation. Elevated levels are linked to serotonin-secreting tumors and serotonin syndrome, while low levels are associated with depression, anxiety, and gut disorders. It is essential for maintaining emotional well-being and physiological balance
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Tyramine is a trace amine derived from tyrosine that promotes release of norepinephrine and other catecholamines. It influences blood pressure and cardiovascular function and is found in fermented foods. Excess levels, particularly with monoamine oxidase inhibitor use, can trigger hyper tensive crises.
Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and thyroid hormone synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies impair neurological and metabolic functions. It plays a central role in neurotransmission and hormonal regulation.

Pathogen destruction system

This pathway forms the membrane attack complex (MAC), which punctures and kills pathogens. Regulatory proteins keep the system in check to avoid harming the body’s own cells.

Clusterin is a glycoprotein involved in apoptosis, lipid transport, and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers, while low levels may impair cellular stress responses. It is a marker of cellular homeostasis and aging-related diseases.
C5 is a precursor for C5a, a potent inflammatory mediator, and C5b, which initiates membrane attack complex (MAC) formation. Dysregulation is implicated in inflammatory diseases, such as paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and complement-mediated nephropathies. It is a key player in both immune activation and cell lysis.
C6 is part of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which lyses pathogens and damaged cells in the terminal complement pathway. Deficiency impairs the ability to form MAC, leading to increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, particularly Neisseria species. It is critical for the final stages of complement-mediated immunity.
Complement C7 is part of the membrane attack complex, contributing to immune-mediated cell lysis. Deficiencies can impair the body's ability to fight bacterial infections, while elevated levels are linked to autoimmune conditions. It is critical for immune defense.

The C8 alpha chain forms part of the membrane attack complex (MAC), working with beta and gamma chains to create a pore in target cell membranes. Deficiencies, particularly in the alpha chain, impair MAC function, increasing susceptibility to infections. It s role is critical for immune defense against encapsulated bacteria.
The C8 beta chain collaborates with the alpha and gamma chains to assemble the membrane attack complex (MAC). Like it s counterpar t s, deficiencies compromise the ability to lyse pathogens, resulting in heightened infection risk. It is vital for complement-mediated cellular destruction.
C9 is the final protein in the membrane attack complex (MAC), polymerizing to form the pore that lyses target cells. Deficiency impairs full MAC formation, leading to susceptibility to bacterial infections, particularly Neisseria species. It is crucial for the terminal stage of complement activation.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Production of clotting factors

This pathway produces several clotting factors that require vitamin K to function. Without vitamin K, clotting is impaired, leading to excessive bleeding risk.

Factor V is a clotting protein that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiency or consumption, as in severe liver disease or disseminated intravascular coagulation, can cause bleeding. Persistent activation can increase the risk of venous thrombosis.
Factor IX is a key component of the coagulation cascade, critical for blood clot formation. Deficiencies cause hemophilia B, leading to bleeding disorders, while excessive activity may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Factor X is a central enzyme in the coagulation cascade, converting prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiencies result in bleeding disorders, while elevated activity increases thrombotic risk, such as in deep vein thrombosis. Its regulation is crucial for preventing clotting abnormalities.
The endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) enhances activation of protein C, a key anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory molecule. A soluble form (sEPCR) circulates in plasma and reflects endothelial activation or injury. Dysregulation is associated with vascular disease, inflammation, and sepsis.
MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.

This protein inhibit s thrombin generation in a protein Z-dependent manner, regulating coagulation. Dysregulated levels are associated with bleeding disorders or thrombotic conditions. It is crucial for maintaining proper coagulation balance.
Prothrombin is a precursor to thrombin, essential for blood clot formation. Altered levels can lead to bleeding disorders or increased thrombotic risk. It is a critical marker for coagulation and hemostasis.
Vitamin K-dependent protein S acts as a cofactor for anticoagulant proteins, regulating blood clotting and preventing thrombosis. Deficiencies are associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events, while elevated levels are less clinically significant. It is vital for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Vitamin K-dependent protein Z supports coagulation by stabilizing clotting factors and preventing excessive clot breakdown. Low levels are linked to bleeding disorders, while elevated levels may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for ensuring proper clot formation and stability.

Protein control system

This pathway involves proteins that restrain enzymes (proteases) which would otherwise break down tissue or cause inflammation. Proper control prevents damage in organs like the lungs and liver.

ACT is a serine protease inhibitor involved in modulating inflammation and proteolytic activity. High ACT levels are associated with chronic inflammation, Alzheimer’s disease, and certain cancers, while deficiencies can lead to increased tissue damage. Its role in regulating proteases is critical for maintaining tissue integrity.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Antithrombin-III (AT-III) is a plasma protein and natural anticoagulant that inhibit s enzymes such as thrombin and factor X a, preventing excessive blood clotting. Deficiency or dysfunction increases the risk of abnormal venous thrombosis, while reduced levels can also occur during severe illness or disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Carboxypeptidase N (CPN) is a plasma enzyme that regulates inflammatory peptides, with subunit 2 stabilizing the enzyme in circulation. It inactivates bradykinin and complement fragments, preventing excessive vascular leakage and inflammation. Low activity is linked to recurrent angioedema and abnormal swelling.
Heparin cofactor 2 is a serine protease inhibitor that regulates thrombin activity, preventing excessive clotting. Deficiencies are linked to thrombosis risk, while elevated levels may occur during inflammation or anticoagulant therapy. It is crucial for maintaining hemostatic balance.

This protein is involved in immune regulation and extracellular matrix protection. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and sepsis, while deficiencies may impair wound healing and immune responses. It is crucial for modulating inflammation and tissue repair.
Kallistatin is a serine protease inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective properties. Elevated levels are linked to protective cardiovascular effects, while deficiencies may contribute to hypertension and oxidative stress. It plays a role in vascular health and immune modulation.
This inhibitor regulates protease activity in coagulation and immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammatory conditions. It plays a vital role in hemostatic and immune processes.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.

Tissue and organ structural support

This pathway represents the structural scaffolding of tissues - proteins and molecules that support organs, joints, and skin. Remodeling of this matrix plays a role in healing, fibrosis, and cancer spread.

CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Extracellular matrix protein 1 supports tissue structure, angiogenesis, and immune regulation. Dysregulation is linked to skin conditions like lipoid proteinosis and cancers involving abnormal extracellular matrix remodeling. It plays an important role in maintaining tissue integrity and cellular communication.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
Gelsolin is an actin-binding protein involved in cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility. It plays a role in immune responses and tissue repair, with altered levels associated with neurodegeneration, inflammation, and sepsis. It is important for maintaining cellular integrity.
Lumican is a proteoglycan involved in extracellular matrix organization and collagen fibril formation. Dysregulated levels are associated with fibrosis, inflammation, and cancer, reflecting tissue remodeling and repair processes. It is essential for maintaining connective tissue structure and integrity.

Plastin-2 (L-plastin) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Proteoglycan 4, also known as lubricin, is critical for joint lubrication and cartilage protection. Deficiencies are linked to osteoarthritis and joint degeneration, while elevated levels may indicate tissue injury. It is essential for joint health and mobility.
Tenascin-C is an extracellular matrix protein produced during tissue injury, inflammation, and repair. Normally scarce in circulation, it s appearance reflects active tissue remodeling or fibrosis. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.
X aa-pro dipeptidase is an enzyme involved in proline metabolism and collagen degradation. Elevated activity is associated with increased tissue remodeling or metabolic stress, while deficiencies may impair collagen turnover. It is important for connective tissue maintenance and amino acid metabolism.

Urea Cycle

This pathway converts ammonia, a toxic byproduct of protein metabolism, into urea that can be safely excreted in urine. Disruption can lead to dangerous ammonia buildup.

Acetyl-ornithine is a derivative of ornithine, an amino acid involved in the urea cycle, which regulates nitrogen metabolism and ammonia detoxification. Abnormal levels may indicate disturbances in urea cycle function, potentially contributing to hyperammonemia or metabolic dysfunctions in the liver. It may also reflect broader disruptions in amino acid metabolism related to malnutrition or inborn errors of metabolism.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid crucial for nitric oxide production, immune function, and wound healing. Deficiencies are associated with impaired endothelial function, increased cardiovascular risk, and immune suppression, while excessive levels can exacerbate certain metabolic disorders. It is vital for maintaining vascular and metabolic health.
Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Dysregulated levels may indicate hepatic or metabolic dysfunction, and its role in energy balance and stress responses makes it critical in cellular health. Alterations in asparagine metabolism are also being explored in cancer biology.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in the urea cycle, neurotransmission, and energy metabolism. Dysregulation can reflect liver dysfunction or altered energy pathways, with potential implications for fatigue and metabolic disorders. It supports ammonia detoxification and cellular energy production.

Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.
Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.
Ornithine is an amino acid central to the urea cycle, aiding in ammonia detoxification and polyamine synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate urea cycle disorders or liver dysfunction, while low levels can impair detoxification processes. It plays a vital role in nitrogen balance and metabolic health.

Vascular Inflammation

When blood vessel linings (endothelium) are activated during stress or inflammation, they release signaling molecules and become “sticky,” allowing immune cells to attach. Over time, this can contribute to vascular disease.

ADGRF5 is a receptor involved in cell adhesion, signaling, and tissue development, particularly in the cardiovascular and immune systems. Dysregulation of this receptor has been implicated in hyper tension, vascular integrity disorders, and certain cancers. It s role in inflammatory pathways suggests potential relevance in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases.
Cadherin-5 is an endothelial cell adhesion protein crucial for vascular integrity and permeability. Dysregulated levels are implicated in vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and angiogenesis-related cancers, as well as inflammation-induced endothelial damage. It is essential for maintaining endothelial barrier function and tissue repair.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
The endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) enhances activation of protein C, a key anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory molecule. A soluble form (sEPCR) circulates in plasma and reflects endothelial activation or injury. Dysregulation is associated with vascular disease, inflammation, and sepsis.

Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
L-selectin is an adhesion molecule that guides leukocyte migration to sites of inflammation or injury. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammatory conditions and immune dysregulation, while low levels may impair immune surveillance. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and inflammatory responses.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline, memory loss, and the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates in the brain.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Alpha-aminoadipic acid is a lysine metabolism intermediate and potential biomarker for oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Elevated levels have been associated with type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and insulin resistance. Its role in oxidative pathways makes it a valuable marker for metabolic health.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. Its role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Dysregulated levels may indicate hepatic or metabolic dysfunction, and its role in energy balance and stress responses makes it critical in cellular health. Alterations in asparagine metabolism are also being explored in cancer biology.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Clusterin is a glycoprotein involved in apoptosis, lipid transport, and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers, while low levels may impair cellular stress responses. It is a marker of cellular homeostasis and aging-related diseases.

Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in arterial walls, leading to reduced blood flow and an increased risk of heart attack and stroke.

ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoB-100 is the main structural protein of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and VLDL, directly reflecting atherogenic lipoproteins in circulation. Elevated levels are a key marker of cardiovascular disease risk and dyslipidemia. ApoB-100 measurement is critical for assessing atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome.
ApoC-II is a cofactor for lipoprotein lipase, essential for triglyceride metabolism. Deficiency results in hypertriglyceridemia and associated metabolic complications, while elevated levels can contribute to dyslipidemia. Its function in regulating lipid clearance is critical for maintaining metabolic balance.
ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C4BPα is part of the complement system, regulating immune responses and protecting against excessive inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with autoimmune diseases, thrombosis, and inflammation, while low levels can impair immune defense. It plays a critical role in maintaining immune balance and preventing overactivation of complement pathways.
Cadherin-5 is an endothelial cell adhesion protein crucial for vascular integrity and permeability. Dysregulated levels are implicated in vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and angiogenesis-related cancers, as well as inflammation-induced endothelial damage. It is essential for maintaining endothelial barrier function and tissue repair.
CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Hemopexin binds free heme, preventing oxidative damage and aiding in heme clearance. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and hemolysis, while low levels can impair heme detoxification and exacerbate oxidative stress. It is vital for protecting tissues from free heme toxicity.

The acid labile subunit stabilizes complexes of insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins, prolonging their half-life. Deficiencies can impair growth factor signaling, affecting growth and metabolism, while elevated levels are associated with metabolic disturbances. It supports hormonal regulation and growth.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Lumican is a proteoglycan involved in extracellular matrix organization and collagen fibril formation. Dysregulated levels are associated with fibrosis, inflammation, and cancer, reflecting tissue remodeling and repair processes. It is essential for maintaining connective tissue structure and integrity.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Tetranectin is a protein involved in tissue remodeling, fibrinolysis, and bone health. Altered levels are associated with cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular diseases. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and regulating bone metabolism.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Vitamin K-dependent protein S acts as a cofactor for anticoagulant proteins, regulating blood clotting and preventing thrombosis. Deficiencies are associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events, while elevated levels are less clinically significant. It is vital for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Vitamin K-dependent protein Z supports coagulation by stabilizing clotting factors and preventing excessive clot breakdown. Low levels are linked to bleeding disorders, while elevated levels may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for ensuring proper clot formation and stability.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

Cardiovascular Disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) encompasses a range of conditions affecting the heart and blood vessels, including coronary artery disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias.

Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A, is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.

Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Uric acid is the final product of purine metabolism, serving as an antioxidant at normal levels but pro-inflammatory when elevated. High levels are associated with gout, kidney stones, and cardiovascular diseases, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or dietary deficiencies.
Zinc-alpha-2-glycoprotein (ZAG) is a lipid-mobilizing factor involved in metabolic regulation and immune function. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, cachexia, and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism and immune responses. It plays a key role in energy homeostasis and fat metabolism.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition characterized by airflow obstruction, inflammation, and lung tissue damage, leading to breathing difficulties.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. Dysregulated levels are linked to neurological disorders, metabolic dysfunction, and energy imbalances. It is critical for cellular function and neurotransmission.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a component of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and inflammation, while deficiencies can lead to bleeding disorders. It plays a vital role in coagulation and wound healing.
The fibrinogen beta chain is another subunit of fibrinogen, essential for blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to increased clotting risk and inflammation, while deficiencies can cause bleeding disorders. It is a critical marker for hemostatic and vascular health.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Glutamic acid is an excitatory neurotransmitter involved in brain function, metabolism, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is a key marker for neurological and metabolic health.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.

Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
This protein plays a role in extracellular matrix stabilization and inflammation regulation. Dysregulated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions, cancer, and tissue remodeling disorders. It is crucial for immune balance and tissue integrity.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
Ornithine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle, playing a role in ammonia detoxification and amino acid metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, while deficiencies can impair detoxification and nitrogen balance. It is essential for protein metabolism and waste removal.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Depression

Depression is a complex mood disorder linked to neurotransmitter imbalances, inflammation, and metabolic dysregulation, affecting emotional and cognitive function.

CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a subunit of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies impair coagulation and wound healing. It is essential for maintaining hemostasis and responding to vascular injury.
The fibrinogen beta chain contributes to the structure of fibrinogen and plays a role in blood clot formation and stability. Abnormal levels are associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammation. It is crucial for effective clot formation and vascular repair.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, playing a crucial role in regulating neuronal excitability and mood. Dysregulated levels are associated with anxiety disorders, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is a key marker for neurological and mental health.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.

Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in energy metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis. Dysregulated levels are linked to neurological disorders, metabolic dysfunction, and energy imbalances. It is critical for cellular function and neurotransmission.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Ceruloplasmin is a copper-binding protein involved in iron metabolism and antioxidant defense. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and liver disease, while low levels may indicate Wilson’s disease or copper deficiency. It plays a crucial role in oxidative stress regulation and metal transport.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Glucose is a primary energy source for cells, regulated by insulin and glucagon. Abnormal levels are associated with diabetes, metabolic disorders, and energy imbalances. It is a critical marker for metabolic health and energy homeostasis.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.

Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid important for collagen formation, wound healing, and cellular stress responses. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or tissue repair, while deficiencies can impair skin and connective tissue integrity. It plays a key role in structural and metabolic health.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in inflammatory responses and immune regulation. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, infections, and cancer, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It serves as a biomarker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.

Liver Disease

Liver disease encompasses a range of conditions affecting liver function, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, and fatty liver disease, which can lead to metabolic disturbances and organ failure.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid involved in glucose metabolism, immune function, and protein synthesis. Elevated levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while deficiencies may indicate impaired amino acid metabolism. It plays a crucial role in energy production and nitrogen transport.
Alpha-1-antichymotrypsin is a serine protease inhibitor involved in modulating inflammation and protecting tissues from proteolytic damage. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while deficiencies may impair immune function. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and immune balance.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Beta-2-microglobulin is a component of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) involved in immune response regulation. Elevated levels are associated with kidney dysfunction, autoimmune diseases, and certain cancers. It serves as a marker for immune activation and renal function.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Cholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, regulating nerve signal transmission. Altered levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, pesticide exposure, and liver dysfunction. It is an important marker for neurological and hepatic health.
Complement C7 is part of the membrane attack complex, contributing to immune-mediated cell lysis. Deficiencies can impair the body's ability to fight bacterial infections, while elevated levels are linked to autoimmune conditions. It is critical for immune defense.
Cystatin-C is a protein produced by all nucleated cells and is a sensitive marker for kidney function, independent of muscle mass. Elevated levels are associated with chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular risk, and aging. It provides a more accurate estimate of kidney function compared to traditional markers in certain populations.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Gelsolin is an actin-binding protein involved in cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility. It plays a role in immune responses and tissue repair, with altered levels associated with neurodegeneration, inflammation, and sepsis. It is important for maintaining cellular integrity.
Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.

Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid involved in muscle metabolism, immune function, and energy production. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair muscle growth and repair. It is essential for protein synthesis and metabolic regulation.
Kallistatin is a serine protease inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective properties. Elevated levels are linked to protective cardiovascular effects, while deficiencies may contribute to hypertension and oxidative stress. It plays a role in vascular health and immune modulation.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and metabolic regulation. Low levels can impair muscle function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic imbalances. It plays a critical role in muscle growth and energy metabolism.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid required for neurotransmitter synthesis and protein metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with phenylketonuria (PKU) and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can impair cognitive function. It is critical for brain health and metabolic balance.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid important for collagen formation, wound healing, and cellular stress responses. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or tissue repair, while deficiencies can impair skin and connective tissue integrity. It plays a key role in structural and metabolic health.
Prothrombin is a precursor to thrombin, essential for blood clot formation. Altered levels can lead to bleeding disorders or increased thrombotic risk. It is a critical marker for coagulation and hemostasis.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.
Vitamin D-binding protein is a transporter of vitamin D metabolites, essential for calcium homeostasis and immune regulation. Altered levels are linked to vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and chronic diseases. It plays a critical role in maintaining vitamin D availability and metabolic health.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a metabolic liver disorder characterized by fat accumulation in liver cells, which can progress to inflammation, fibrosis, and cirrhosis.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alpha-2-HS-glycoprotein, also known as Fetuin-A, is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
Complement C3 is a central component of the immune system, facilitating opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, metabolic syndrome, and autoimmune diseases, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It is a key marker of immune function and inflammatory status.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.

Glucose is a primary energy source for cells, regulated by insulin and glucagon. Abnormal levels are associated with diabetes, metabolic disorders, and energy imbalances. It is a critical marker for metabolic health and energy homeostasis.
Glutamine is a conditionally essential amino acid crucial for immune function, gut health, and nitrogen transport. Low levels are associated with muscle wasting and immune suppression, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress. It is essential for cellular repair and energy metabolism.
IGFBP-3 is the primary carrier of insulin-like growth factors in circulation, regulating their bioavailability and activity. Elevated levels are associated with growth disorders and metabolic conditions, while deficiencies may impair cell growth and repair. It plays a key role in endocrine and metabolic regulation.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
RBP4 is a transport protein for vitamin A, playing a role in retinol metabolism and insulin resistance. Elevated levels are associated with obesity, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome, while deficiencies may indicate vitamin A deficiency or impaired metabolic function. It is an important biomarker for metabolic and nutritional health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid involved in bile acid conjugation, osmoregulation, and antioxidant defense. It supports cardiovascular health, neurological function, and immune regulation. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders, while supplementation may provide protective effects.
Vitamin D-binding protein is a transporter of vitamin D metabolites, essential for calcium homeostasis and immune regulation. Altered levels are linked to vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and chronic diseases. It plays a critical role in maintaining vitamin D availability and metabolic health.

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS)

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder associated with irregular ovulation, insulin resistance, and metabolic dysfunction, increasing the risk of infertility and chronic diseases.

Afamin is a glycoprotein primarily involved in vitamin E transport, with roles in antioxidative defense and metabolic regulation. Elevated levels have been linked to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular risk, while low levels may indicate oxidative stress or poor vitamin E status. Its association with insulin resistance highlights its importance in metabolic health.
Alanine is a non-essential amino acid central to glucose metabolism and energy production, acting as a carrier of nitrogen between tissues. Increased alanine levels may reflect metabolic conditions such as insulin resistance, while low levels can indicate impaired protein metabolism or malnutrition. Its balance is crucial for maintaining normal gluconeogenesis and nitrogen balance.
Fetuin-A is a glycoprotein involved in calcium metabolism, insulin signaling, and inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, insulin resistance, and cardiovascular disease, while low levels may indicate impaired bone metabolism. It plays a dual role in promoting metabolic health and regulating inflammatory responses.
ApoA-I is the main structural protein of HDL (high-density lipoprotein), critical for reverse cholesterol transport and cardiovascular health. Low levels are associated with increased cardiovascular risk, while high levels typically indicate robust lipid metabolism. It serves as a key marker for assessing cardiovascular protection.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid crucial for nitric oxide production, immune function, and wound healing. Deficiencies are associated with impaired endothelial function, increased cardiovascular risk, and immune suppression, while excessive levels can exacerbate certain metabolic disorders. It is vital for maintaining vascular and metabolic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and liver function. Deficiencies can lead to fatty liver, cognitive decline, and muscle dysfunction, while optimal levels support brain and liver health. It is critical for maintaining cellular and neurological integrity.
Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.
Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification pathways. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or metabolic stress, while deficiencies can impair neurotransmitter balance and antioxidant defenses. It supports cellular metabolism and tissue repair.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.

Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid important for protein synthesis, energy production, and immune function. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or insulin resistance, while deficiencies can impair muscle function and immune responses. It is crucial for metabolic and muscular health.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, energy production, and muscle repair. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle health and immune function. It supports anabolic processes and energy metabolism.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.
Methionine-sulfoxide is an oxidized form of methionine, reflecting oxidative stress in the body. Elevated levels are associated with aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular conditions. It serves as a marker of cellular oxidative damage and the body’s ability to manage reactive oxygen species.
Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and protein building. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies affect protein synthesis and brain function. It is important for nervous system and metabolic health.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Serine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and phospholipid metabolism. Deficiencies can impair brain function, immune responses, and cellular growth, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic stress or certain neurological conditions. It is crucial for overall cellular and neurological health.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Threonine is an essential amino acid required for protein synthesis, immune function, and gut health. Deficiencies can impair intestinal integrity, muscle growth, and immune responses, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic imbalances. It is critical for maintaining structural and metabolic functions in the body.
Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and thyroid hormone synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies impair neurological and metabolic functions. It plays a central role in neurotransmission and hormonal regulation.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that causes inflammation and joint damage, often leading to pain, stiffness, and disability.

AGP1 is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation, infection, or injury. Elevated levels are markers of systemic inflammation and are associated with conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disorders. AGP1 also reflects changes in immune response and tissue damage.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C1q subunit B is part of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway, critical for initiating immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with autoimmune diseases, such as lupus, and impaired pathogen clearance. It plays a central role in linking innate immunity with inflammation.
Haptoglobin binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage and recycling iron. Elevated levels indicate inflammation or tissue injury, while low levels are linked to hemolytic anemia or liver disease. It is a key marker of inflammation and red blood cell turnover.
Histidine is an amino acid essential for protein synthesis, histamine production, and pH buffering. Deficiencies are associated with anemia, immune suppression, and reduced muscle strength, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic or renal dysfunction. It supports tissue repair and immune health.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.

Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Lysozyme C is an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, contributing to innate immunity. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, infection, and certain cancers, while low levels may indicate immune deficiencies. It is essential for antimicrobial defense and immune function.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in immune regulation and inflammatory responses. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, cancer, and chronic inflammation, reflecting immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Tetranectin is a protein involved in tissue remodeling, fibrinolysis, and bone health. Altered levels are associated with cancer, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular diseases. It plays a role in maintaining tissue integrity and regulating bone metabolism.

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and impaired glucose regulation, leading to long-term complications such as cardiovascular disease and neuropathy.

Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
Alpha-aminoadipic acid is a lysine metabolism intermediate and potential biomarker for oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Elevated levels have been associated with type 2 diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and insulin resistance. Its role in oxidative pathways makes it a valuable marker for metabolic health.
Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
ApoA-IV plays a role in lipid transport, satiety signaling, and anti-inflammatory processes. High levels are associated with improved metabolic health, while low levels may indicate dyslipidemia or chronic inflammation. Its role in triglyceride metabolism and intestinal lipid absorption highlights its metabolic importance.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism and cellular osmotic balance. Elevated levels may reflect enhanced methylation capacity or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies are linked to cardiovascular disease and poor methylation. It plays a critical role in cardiovascular and hepatic health.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Gelsolin is a cytoskeletal protein that regulates actin filament remodeling, essential for cell shape and motility. Abnormal levels are linked to inflammatory diseases, cancer progression, and amyloidosis. It is important for cellular stability and response to injury.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.

This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
Isoleucine is a branched-chain amino acid important for protein synthesis, energy production, and immune function. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or insulin resistance, while deficiencies can impair muscle function and immune responses. It is crucial for metabolic and muscular health.
L-selectin is an adhesion molecule that guides leukocyte migration to sites of inflammation or injury. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammatory conditions and immune dysregulation, while low levels may impair immune surveillance. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and inflammatory responses.
Leucine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, energy production, and muscle repair. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic dysfunction or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle health and immune function. It supports anabolic processes and energy metabolism.
Methylhistidine is a byproduct of muscle protein turnover, primarily from actin and myosin breakdown. Elevated levels indicate increased muscle breakdown, which may occur in catabolic states, malnutrition, or high-protein diets. It is a useful marker for muscle metabolism and nutritional status.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.
Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Retinol-binding protein 4 is responsible for transporting vitamin A, crucial for vision, immune function, and cellular differentiation. Elevated levels are associated with insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation, while low levels may reflect vitamin A deficiency or malnutrition. It is a key marker for vitamin A status and metabolic health.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.
Valine is a branched-chain amino acid essential for protein synthesis, muscle repair, and energy production. Elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or excessive intake, while deficiencies impair muscle function and recovery. It is vital for maintaining anabolic processes and metabolic balance.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, coagulation, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, atherosclerosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies may impair wound healing and cellular adhesion. It plays a role in maintaining vascular health and tissue integrity.

Acute-Phase Protein Response

The acute-phase protein response is a rapid systemic reaction to inflammation, infection, or trauma, characterized by changes in plasma protein levels to support immune defense and tissue repair.

AGP1 is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation, infection, or injury. Elevated levels are markers of systemic inflammation and are associated with conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune disorders. AGP1 also reflects changes in immune response and tissue damage.
AAT is another serine protease inhibitor essential for protecting tissues from enzyme-mediated damage, particularly in the lungs. Deficiency of AAT is linked to emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), while elevated levels may occur in response to acute inflammation. AAT plays a key role in maintaining pulmonary and systemic health.
Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a protease inhibitor involved in inflammation, immunity, and tissue repair. Increased levels may indicate chronic liver disease, nephrotic syndrome, or acute-phase responses, while low levels can reflect protein loss or malnutrition. Its role in capturing and clearing proteases is vital for maintaining systemic homeostasis.
ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. It s role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
Beta- 2-glycoprotein 1 plays a role in immune regulation and coagulation, with involvement in antiphospholipid syndrome and autoimmune diseases. Elevated levels are associated with inflammatory conditions and thrombosis, while deficiencies can impair coagulation. It is a key marker in autoimmune and thrombotic risk assessment.
CRP is a key acute-phase reactant produced by the liver in response to inflammation and tissue injury. Elevated levels are a marker of systemic inflammation, linked to cardiovascular diseases, infections, and autoimmune conditions. It is widely used to assess inflammation and monitor treatment responses in chronic inflammatory diseases.
Ceruloplasmin is a copper-carrying protein with antioxidant properties, crucial for iron metabolism and oxidative stress regulation. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and liver diseases, while low levels are associated with Wilson’s disease and neurodegenerative disorders. It serves as a marker for copper metabolism and systemic inflammation.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.
Fetuin-B is a liver-derived glycoprotein involved in regulating insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, reflecting its role in metabolic health. It is a potential biomarker for insulin resistance and chronic inflammation.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a subunit of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies impair coagulation and wound healing. It is essential for maintaining hemostasis and responding to vascular injury.

The fibrinogen beta chain contributes to the structure of fibrinogen and plays a role in blood clot formation and stability. Abnormal levels are associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammation. It is crucial for effective clot formation and vascular repair.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Haptoglobin binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage and recycling iron. Elevated levels indicate inflammation or tissue injury, while low levels are linked to hemolytic anemia or liver disease. It is a key marker of inflammation and red blood cell turnover.
This protein is involved in immune modulation and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer, while low levels may reflect impaired immune activity. It serves as a marker for systemic inflammation and immune regulation.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.
Serotransferrin is a glycoprotein that transports iron in the blood, supporting hemoglobin synthesis and cellular metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate iron overload or inflammation, while low levels are associated with anemia and malnutrition. It is a key marker of iron metabolism and systemic health.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Serum amyloid A-4 protein is an acute-phase reactant involved in the inflammatory response and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammation, cardiovascular diseases, and amyloidosis, while deficiencies can impair immune responses. It plays a role in inflammation and tissue repair.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.

Blood clot breakdown

Once a clot has done its job, this pathway controls its breakdown. Too much breakdown can cause bleeding, while too little allows clots to persist and block blood vessels.

Alpha-2-antiplasmin is a key inhibitor of fibrinolysis, preventing the breakdown of blood clots. Elevated levels may contribute to thrombotic disorders, while deficiencies can result in increased bleeding risk. Its regulation is crucial for maintaining hemostasis and preventing both excessive clotting and hemorrhage.
CPB2 is an enzyme that modulates fibrinolysis and inflammation by inactivating inflammatory mediators and stabilizing blood clots. Dysregulation can lead to excessive clotting or bleeding disorders and is associated with cardiovascular diseases and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for balancing clot formation and breakdown.
CPN is involved in regulating inflammatory peptides and maintaining vascular homeostasis. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and cancer, while deficiencies may impair regulation of complement and kinin systems. It is essential for modulating inflammation and tissue repair.

Plasma protease C1 inhibitor regulates complement activation, protecting against excessive inflammation and tissue damage. Deficiencies are linked to hereditary angioedema, while elevated levels may occur during acute inflammation. It is essential for maintaining immune balance.
Plasminogen is a precursor to plasmin, which is involved in breaking down fibrin clots during fibrinolysis. Deficiencies lead to impaired clot resolution and thrombosis, while elevated activity can cause excessive bleeding. It is critical for balancing clot formation and dissolution.

Blood clot formation

This pathway describes how the body creates a blood clot. Fibrin proteins link together to form a mesh that stabilizes the clot and seals wounds.

Factor V is a clotting protein that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiency or consumption, as in severe liver disease or disseminated intravascular coagulation, can cause bleeding. Persistent activation can increase the risk of venous thrombosis.
Factor XIII stabilizes blood clots by crosslinking fibrin, enhancing clot strength and stability. Deficiency leads to delayed wound healing and bleeding disorders, while elevated activity may contribute to thrombotic conditions. It is critical for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
The B chain of Factor XIII is responsible for stabilizing and transporting the A chain, which is directly involved in clot stabilization. Deficiencies in the B chain impair clot formation and increase bleeding risk, while mutations may contribute to thrombotic conditions. It is crucial for ensuring effective clot integrity and repair.
The fibrinogen alpha chain is a component of fibrinogen, a key protein in blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular disease and inflammation, while deficiencies can lead to bleeding disorders. It plays a vital role in coagulation and wound healing.

The fibrinogen beta chain is another subunit of fibrinogen, essential for blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to increased clotting risk and inflammation, while deficiencies can cause bleeding disorders. It is a critical marker for hemostatic and vascular health.
The fibrinogen gamma chain supports fibrin crosslinking, stabilizing blood clots during hemostasis. Dysregulation can lead to clotting disorders or increased thrombotic risk, contributing to cardiovascular and inflammatory conditions. It is vital for maintaining clot integrity and tissue repair.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

Blood vessel dilation and signaling

Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
ADMA is an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, impairing nitric oxide production and endothelial function. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome, reflecting endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. It is a critical marker for vascular and metabolic health.
Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.

Creatinine is a byproduct of creatine metabolism, excreted by the kidneys, and is widely used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels indicate impaired kidney filtration, while low levels may reflect reduced muscle mass or malnutrition. It is a key biomarker for renal health and metabolic status.
Nitro-tyrosine is a modified amino acid formed during nitrosative stress when reactive nitrogen species modify proteins. It serves as a marker of oxidative and inflammatory damage. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular disease, endothelial dysfunction, and chronic inflammatory disorders.
Ornithine is a key intermediate in the urea cycle, playing a role in ammonia detoxification and amino acid metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, while deficiencies can impair detoxification and nitrogen balance. It is essential for protein metabolism and waste removal.

Blood vessel growth and maintenance

Angiogenin is a protein promoting blood vessel formation (angiogenesis), essential for wound healing and tissue regeneration. Elevated levels are linked to cancer progression, where it supports tumor angiogenesis, while reduced levels may impair vascular repair. Its regulation is critical for maintaining healthy vascular function and tissue repair.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Fibulin-1 is a glycoprotein that contributes to extracellular matrix stability and vascular integrity. Elevated levels are associated with cardiovascular diseases and fibrotic disorders, reflecting its role in tissue remodeling and elasticity. It is an emerging marker for vascular health and connective tissue disorders.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
This protein has neuroprotective, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties, playing a role in retinal health and vascular diseases. Dysregulated levels are associated with diabetic retinopathy, cancer, and neurodegeneration. It is critical for vascular integrity and tissue protection.

Plastin-2 (L-plastin) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Thrombospondin-1 is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, angiogenesis, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer progression, cardiovascular diseases, and chronic inflammation, while deficiencies may impair wound healing. It plays a critical role in regulating cellular communication and vascular health.
Vasorin is a protein involved in vascular remodeling and regulation of cellular proliferation. Dysregulated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases, fibrosis, and tumor progression. It is important for vascular integrity and tissue repair.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Cell growth and repair

This pathway produces polyamines, molecules that support DNA stability, protein synthesis, and cell growth. Their regulation affects immunity, stress responses, and even cancer biology.

Acetyl-ornithine is a derivative of ornithine, an amino acid involved in the urea cycle, which regulates nitrogen metabolism and ammonia detoxification. Abnormal levels may indicate disturbances in urea cycle function, potentially contributing to hyperammonemia or metabolic dysfunctions in the liver. It may also reflect broader disruptions in amino acid metabolism related to malnutrition or inborn errors of metabolism.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid involved in nitric oxide production, immune function, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies can impair vascular function, while elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or excessive protein intake. It plays a key role in wound healing and circulation.
Diacetylspermine is a modified polyamine derived from spermine that reflect s polyamine metabolism and cell proliferation. Elevated levels are strongly associated with cancer progression and metastasis risk. It may also vary with pregnancy and hyper tensive complications such as preeclampsia.
Ornithine is an amino acid central to the urea cycle, aiding in ammonia detoxification and polyamine synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate urea cycle disorders or liver dysfunction, while low levels can impair detoxification processes. It plays a vital role in nitrogen balance and metabolic health.

Proline is a non-essential amino acid involved in collagen synthesis and wound healing. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or connective tissue breakdown, while deficiencies impair tissue repair. It is essential for maintaining skin, joint, and vascular health.
Putrescine is a polyamine involved in cell growth, proliferation, and tissue repair. Elevated levels are associated with cancer and rapid cellular turnover, while deficiencies may impair healing and cellular function. It plays a role in growth regulation
Spermidine is a polyamine involved in cellular growth, autophagy, and aging regulation. Elevated levels are associated with enhanced autophagy and cellular repair, while low levels may contribute to age-related decline and metabolic dysfunction. It supports cellular renewal and longevity.
Spermine is a polyamine involved in D NA stabilization, gene expression, and cellular metabolism. It supports growth in rapidly dividing tissues. Dysregulated metabolism is linked to cancer, aging, and disorders of abnormal cell proliferation.

Detoxification and Oxidative Stress

This pathway helps process sulfur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine. It supports antioxidant production (e.g., glutathione) and detoxification of harmful compounds.

This amino acid is a byproduct of methionine and threonine metabolism, of ten used as a marker of mitochondrial function and oxidative stress. Elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction, oxidative stress, or metabolic disorders, while deficiencies can be seen in malnutrition. It s balance is essential for cellular redox status and amino acid metabolism.
Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism and cellular osmotic balance. Elevated levels may reflect enhanced methylation capacity or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies are linked to cardiovascular disease and poor methylation. It plays a critical role in cardiovascular and hepatic health.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.
Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, methylation, and antioxidant defense. Deficiencies impair detoxification and immune function, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic disorders or oxidative stress. It is critical for maintaining cellular metabolism and methylation processes.

Methionine-sulfoxide is an oxidized form of methionine, reflecting oxidative stress in the body. Elevated levels are associated with aging, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular conditions. It serves as a marker of cellular oxidative damage and the body’s ability to manage reactive oxygen species.
Sarcosine is a metabolite in the glycine and methionine cycles, linked to methylation and energy metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with prostate cancer progression and metabolic dysfunction, while low levels may indicate impaired methylation. It plays a role in regulating cellular growth and metabolic pathways.
Serine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and phospholipid metabolism. Deficiencies can impair brain function, immune responses, and cellular growth, while elevated levels may reflect metabolic stress or certain neurological conditions. It is crucial for overall cellular and neurological health.
Taurine is a sulfur-containing amino acid critical for bile acid conjugation, antioxidant defense, and cardiovascular health. Deficiencies are linked to heart failure, metabolic dysfunction, and neurological disorders, while elevated levels are generally protective. It supports cellular health and systemic metabolic balance.

Fat and Cholesterol transport

This pathway clears triglyceride-rich lipoproteins from the blood after eating. Inefficient clearance leaves behind cholesterol-rich remnants that contribute to atherosclerosis.

ApoA-IV plays a role in lipid transport, satiety signaling, and anti-inflammatory processes. High levels are associated with improved metabolic health, while low levels may indicate dyslipidemia or chronic inflammation. Its role in triglyceride metabolism and intestinal lipid absorption highlights its metabolic importance.
ApoB-100 is the main structural protein of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and VLDL, directly reflecting atherogenic lipoproteins in circulation. Elevated levels are a key marker of cardiovascular disease risk and dyslipidemia. ApoB-100 measurement is critical for assessing atherosclerosis and metabolic syndrome.
ApoC-I is a minor apolipoprotein that modulates lipoprotein metabolism and lipid transport. Elevated levels are associated with hyperlipidemia and metabolic syndrome, while low levels may reflect impaired lipid metabolism. It also has a regulatory role in inflammation and immune responses.
ApoC-II is a cofactor for lipoprotein lipase, essential for triglyceride metabolism. Deficiency results in hypertriglyceridemia and associated metabolic complications, while elevated levels can contribute to dyslipidemia. Its function in regulating lipid clearance is critical for maintaining metabolic balance.

ApoC-III regulates triglyceride metabolism by inhibiting lipoprotein lipase, with elevated levels linked to hypertriglyceridemia and cardiovascular disease risk. It plays a role in promoting inflammation and atherosclerosis, making it a critical marker in metabolic and cardiovascular health. Therapeutic targeting of ApoC-III is under investigation to reduce cardiovascular risk.
ApoE is essential for lipid transport and neuronal repair, with its genetic variants significantly influencing Alzheimer's disease risk and cardiovascular health. ApoE ε4 allele carriers are at increased risk for neurodegeneration, while deficiencies can lead to dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Its central role spans lipid metabolism, inflammation, and brain health.
Phospholipid transfer protein facilitates lipid transport between lipoproteins, aiding in lipid metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport. Abnormal activity is linked to cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders. It is essential for lipid balance and maintaining healthy lipoprotein function.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.

Glycolysis-gluconeogenesis

This is the body’s main energy management pathway. Glycolysis breaks down glucose for fuel, while gluconeogenesis produces glucose when needed to maintain stable blood sugar.

Alanine is a non-essential amino acid central to glucose metabolism and energy production, acting as a carrier of nitrogen between tissues. Increased alanine levels may reflect metabolic conditions such as insulin resistance, while low levels can indicate impaired protein metabolism or malnutrition. Its balance is crucial for maintaining normal gluconeogenesis and nitrogen balance.
Glucose is the primary energy source for cells, tightly regulated by insulin and metabolic pathways. Elevated levels indicate hyperglycemia and risk of diabetes, while low levels can lead to hypoglycemia and energy deficits. It is a fundamental biomarker for metabolic and energy balance.

Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.

Hormone Binding and Transport

This pathway controls how hormones travel through the blood, usually bound to carrier proteins. These carriers help regulate how much hormone is available to tissues at any given time.

ApoD is a glycoprotein involved in lipid transport, oxidative stress defense, and nervous system health. Elevated levels are associated with neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer ’s disease, while deficiencies may impair lipid metabolism. Its role in protecting against oxidative damage underscores its neuroprotective importance.
ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
CBG transports cortisol in the blood, regulating its bioavailability and activity in stress responses and immune modulation. Low levels are associated with adrenal insufficiency and chronic stress, while high levels can reflect inflammation or hypercortisolism. It is a key marker of hormonal and inflammatory status.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.
Retinol-binding protein 4 is responsible for transporting vitamin A, crucial for vision, immune function, and cellular differentiation. Elevated levels are associated with insulin resistance, obesity, and inflammation, while low levels may reflect vitamin A deficiency or malnutrition. It is a key marker for vitamin A status and metabolic health.

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood, maintaining oncotic pressure, transporting substances, and reflecting nutritional status. Low levels are associated with liver disease, kidney dysfunction, and malnutrition, while high levels are less common but may indicate dehydration. It is a vital marker for overall health and protein status.
Sex hormone-binding globulin binds and regulates the bioavailability of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. Elevated levels are associated with hormonal imbalances and liver dysfunction, while low levels are linked to insulin resistance, obesity, and polycystic ovary syndrome. It is an important regulator of endocrine and metabolic health.
Thyroxine-binding globulin transports thyroid hormones in the bloodstream, regulating their availability and activity. Elevated levels may indicate estrogen influence or genetic variations, while low levels are linked to liver disease, protein loss, or hormonal imbalances. It is crucial for maintaining thyroid hormone function and metabolic regulation.
Transthyretin is a transport protein for thyroid hormones and retinol, also serving as a marker of nutritional status. Low levels are associated with malnutrition, liver dysfunction, or amyloid diseases, while elevated levels are less common. It is essential for monitoring nutritional and systemic health.
Vitamin D-binding protein transports vitamin D metabolites in the bloodstream, regulating their bioavailability and activity. Low levels are associated with vitamin D deficiency, bone disorders, and inflammatory conditions, while elevated levels may indicate increased binding capacity. It is essential for maintaining bone health and immune function.

Immune system activation

C4BPα is part of the complement system, regulating immune responses and protecting against excessive inflammation. Elevated levels are associated with autoimmune diseases, thrombosis, and inflammation, while low levels can impair immune defense. It plays a critical role in maintaining immune balance and preventing overactivation of complement pathways.
Carboxypeptidase N (CPN) is a plasma enzyme that regulates inflammatory peptides, with subunit 2 stabilizing the enzyme in circulation. It inactivates bradykinin and complement fragments, preventing excessive vascular leakage and inflammation. Low activity is linked to recurrent angioedema and abnormal swelling.
C1q subunit B is part of the C1 complex in the classical complement pathway, critical for initiating immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with autoimmune diseases, such as lupus, and impaired pathogen clearance. It plays a central role in linking innate immunity with inflammation.
C1r is a serine protease that activates the complement cascade by cleaving C1s, enabling downstream immune responses. Mutations or dysregulation can result in complement-mediated diseases, such as hereditary angioedema or autoimmune disorders. It is key for effective immune activation and complement function.
C1r-like protein shares structural similarity with C1r but its exact role remains less defined, though it may have regulatory functions. Alterations in its expression have been linked to inflammatory and autoimmune processes. Its emerging role in immune modulation warrants further study.
C1s is a serine protease activated by C1r, driving the classical complement cascade by cleaving complement proteins C4 and C2. Mutations can result in immune deficiency syndromes or dysregulated complement activity, contributing to inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. It is essential for amplifying the classical complement response.
C2 is a critical component of the classical and lectin complement pathways, aiding in immune defense by forming the C3 convertase. Deficiencies result in immune deficiencies and increased susceptibility to infections, while excessive activity contributes to autoimmune diseases. It is vital for balancing complement activation and immune defense.
C3 is a central protein in all complement pathways, essential for opsonization, inflammation, and pathogen clearance. Dysregulated levels are associated with infections, autoimmune diseases like lupus, and complement-mediated kidney diseases. It is a pivotal biomarker for overall complement activity and immune health.

C4-B is a variant of C4 that contributes to the formation of C3 convertase in the classical and lectin pathways. Abnormal levels are associated with autoimmune conditions, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, or complement deficiencies. It plays a role in immune regulation and inflammation.
Factor B is part of the alternative complement pathway, forming the C3 convertase necessary for complement activation. Dysregulated activity contributes to autoimmune diseases, such as atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, while deficiencies impair immune responses. It is a central player in alternative pathway regulation.
Factor D is a serine protease that activates factor B in the alternative pathway, initiating the amplification loop of complement activation. Elevated levels are linked to complement-mediated diseases, such as age-related macular degeneration, while deficiencies reduce immune efficacy. It is key for alternative pathway amplification.
Factor H regulates the alternative pathway by inhibiting C3 convertase, protecting host cells from complement attack. Deficiencies or mutations are associated with atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome and age-related macular degeneration. It is essential for preventing excessive complement activation and tissue damage.
Factor I inactivates C3b and C4b, ensuring controlled complement activation and preventing immune-mediated tissue damage. Deficiency leads to complement overactivation, increasing susceptibility to infections and autoimmune diseases. It is vital for maintaining immune balance and preventing complement-mediated pathologies.
Ficolin-2 is a recognition molecule of the innate immune system that binds microbial carbohydrates and activates complement. Low levels are associated with increased infection risk, such as tuberculosis, while elevated levels have been linked to cardiovascular disease.
MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.

Innate immunity

This is the body ’s immediate, non-specific defense system. It uses receptors to recognize general patterns of pathogens or tissue damage, triggering a rapid immune response.

ApoL1 is primarily involved in lipid transport and innate immunity, with genetic variants linked to increased risk of kidney diseases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. While protective against trypanosomal infections, ApoL1 mutations can drive kidney dysfunction in susceptible individuals. It highlights a balance between immunity and disease susceptibility.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Ficolin-2 is a recognition molecule of the innate immune system that binds microbial carbohydrates and activates complement. Low levels are associated with increased infection risk, such as tuberculosis, while elevated levels have been linked to cardiovascular disease.
Ficolin-3 is a pattern-recognition molecule involved in the lectin complement pathway, aiding in pathogen clearance and immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with infection and inflammation, while deficiencies increase susceptibility to infections. It plays a vital role in innate immunity.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
Histamine is a biogenic amine produced from histidine, with roles in allergic responses, stomach acid secretion, and neurotransmission. Excess release contributes to allergies, asthma, and anaphylaxis, while deficiency may impair gastric or neurological function.
Lipopolysaccharide-binding protein is involved in recognizing and neutralizing bacterial endotoxins, contributing to immune defense. Elevated levels are associated with systemic inflammation, sepsis, and metabolic disorders, reflecting microbial exposure and immune activation. It is a key marker for inflammation and bacterial translocation.
Lysozyme C is an enzyme that breaks down bacterial cell walls, contributing to innate immunity. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, infection, and certain cancers, while low levels may indicate immune deficiencies. It is essential for antimicrobial defense and immune function.

MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.
Mannose-binding protein C is a pattern-recognition molecule in the lectin complement pathway, aiding in pathogen clearance. Low levels are linked to increased infection risk, while elevated levels may reflect immune activation or inflammation. It is critical for innate immunity and complement-mediated
defense.
Plastin-2 (L-plastin ) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Protein S100-A9 is involved in inflammatory responses and immune regulation. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, infections, and cancer, while deficiencies can impair immune defense. It serves as a biomarker for inflammation and immune dysregulation.
Serum amyloid A 1 (SAA1) is an acute-phase protein produced by the liver that rises sharply during inflammation. It plays roles in immune signaling and lipid transport. Elevated levels are markers of infection, autoimmune disease, and systemic inflammation.
Serum amyloid P-component is a plasma protein that binds to amyloid deposits, playing a role in innate immunity and amyloidosis. Elevated levels are associated with systemic amyloidosis and chronic inflammation, while low levels may indicate compromised immune regulation. It is critical for immune surveillance and amyloid homeostasis.
Tenascin-C is an extracellular matrix protein produced during tissue injury, inflammation, and repair. Normally scarce in circulation, it s appearance reflects active tissue remodeling or fibrosis. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases.

Iron and Red Blood Cell status

Ceruloplasmin is a copper-binding protein involved in iron metabolism and antioxidant defense. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and liver disease, while low levels may indicate Wilson’s disease or copper deficiency. It plays a crucial role in oxidative stress regulation and metal transport.
Haptoglobin is a protein that binds free hemoglobin, preventing oxidative damage. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and infection, while low levels may indicate hemolysis or liver dysfunction. It is an important marker of immune function and hemolytic disorders.
Hemoglobin subunit alpha 1 is a component of hemoglobin, essential for oxygen transport in red blood cells. Abnormal levels are associated with anemia, thalassemia, and other hematological disorders. It is critical for maintaining oxygen delivery and red blood cell function.

Hemopexin binds free heme, preventing oxidative damage and aiding in heme clearance. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation and hemolysis, while low levels can impair heme detoxification and exacerbate oxidative stress. It is vital for protecting tissues from free heme toxicity.
Protein AMBP binds and transports small molecules like retinoids and lipids, playing a role in antioxidant defense and immune function. Abnormal levels are associated with kidney dysfunction and inflammatory diseases. It is important for maintaining transport and detoxification processes.
Serotransferrin is a glycoprotein that transports iron in the blood, supporting hemoglobin synthesis and cellular metabolism. Elevated levels may indicate iron overload or inflammation, while low levels are associated with anemia and malnutrition. It is a key marker of iron metabolism and systemic health.

Microbiome-linked metabolites

Gut bacteria convert certain nutrients (like choline and carnitine) into metabolites that circulate in the body. Some of these, like TMAO, can affect cardiovascular and metabolic health.

Betaine is a methyl donor involved in homocysteine metabolism, liver function, and cellular hydration. Elevated levels are associated with improved cardiovascular and liver health, while deficiencies may contribute to metabolic disorders and increased homocysteine levels. It is a key marker for methylation and metabolic function.
Choline is an essential nutrient involved in neurotransmitter synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane integrity. Deficiencies are associated with cognitive decline, liver dysfunction, and lipid metabolism disorders. It plays a critical role in brain function, liver health, and cardiovascular regulation.
Glycine is a non-essential amino acid involved in neurotransmission, collagen synthesis, and detoxification. Low levels are linked to metabolic disorders and impaired cognitive function, while elevated levels may indicate disruptions in amino acid metabolism. It supports neurological and metabolic health.
Proline-betaine is a metabolite derived from dietary sources, particularly in citrus fruits, and reflects dietary intake and gut metabolism. Elevated levels may suggest dietary imbalances or altered gut function. It serves as a marker of nutrient intake and microbiota activity.

Sarcosine is a metabolite in the glycine and methionine cycles, linked to methylation and energy metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with prostate cancer progression and metabolic dysfunction, while low levels may indicate impaired methylation. It plays a role in regulating cellular growth and metabolic pathways.
Trigonelline is a metabolite found in coffee and certain plants, linked to glucose metabolism and neuroprotection. Elevated levels may reflect dietary intake or protective effects against metabolic disorders, while low levels have limited clinical associations. It is being studied for its role in metabolic and brain health.
Trimethylamine N-oxide is a gut microbiota-derived metabolite associated with cardiovascular health and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are linked to increased risk of atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, and metabolic syndrome. It reflects interactions between diet, gut microbiota, and cardiovascular risk.
Tyramine is a trace amine derived from tyrosine that promotes release of norepinephrine and other catecholamines. It influences blood pressure and cardiovascular function and is found in fermented foods. Excess levels, particularly with monoamine oxidase inhibitor use, can trigger hyper tensive crises.

Neurotransmitter Metabolism

Neurotransmitter metabolism involves the synthesis, breakdown, and regulation of signaling molecules essential for brain function, mood regulation, and neural communication.

Dopa is a precursor of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine, central to catecholamine synthesis. Plasma levels reflect sympathetic nervous system activity and stress response. Abnormal concentrations are linked to autonomic dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, and stress-related disorders.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, critical for maintaining neuronal balance and reducing excitatory signals. Dysregulated levels are linked to anxiety, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases. It is essential for normal brain function and mood regulation.
Glutamic acid is an amino acid and neurotransmitter involved in protein synthesis, energy metabolism, and excitatory signaling in the brain. Elevated levels are linked to neurotoxicity and metabolic disorders, while deficiencies impair neurotransmission. It plays a key role in brain function and metabolic health.
Histamine is a biogenic amine produced from histidine, with roles in allergic responses, stomach acid secretion, and neurotransmission. Excess release contributes to allergies, asthma, and anaphylaxis, while deficiency may impair gastric or neurological function.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of tryptophan involved in immune modulation and neuroactive signaling. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammation, depression, and neurodegenerative diseases, reflecting immune activation and tryptophan metabolism dysregulation. It is a marker for immune and neuroinflammatory conditions.

Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid involved in neurotransmitter synthesis and protein building. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders such as phenylketonuria or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies affect protein synthesis and brain function. It is important for the nervous system and metabolic health.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, gastrointestinal function, and platelet aggregation. Elevated levels are linked to serotonin-secreting tumors and serotonin syndrome, while low levels are associated with depression, anxiety, and gut disorders. It is essential for maintaining emotional well-being and physiological balance
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, serotonin production, and immune regulation. Low levels are associated with mood disorders, immune dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, while elevated levels may indicate liver dysfunction or dietary influence. It is critical for neurotransmitter synthesis and systemic health.
Tyramine is a trace amine derived from tyrosine that promotes release of norepinephrine and other catecholamines. It influences blood pressure and cardiovascular function and is found in fermented foods. Excess levels, particularly with monoamine oxidase inhibitor use, can trigger hyper tensive crises.
Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and thyroid hormone synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic disorders or liver dysfunction, while deficiencies impair neurological and metabolic functions. It plays a central role in neurotransmission and hormonal regulation.

Pathogen destruction system

This pathway forms the membrane attack complex (MAC), which punctures and kills pathogens. Regulatory proteins keep the system in check to avoid harming the body’s own cells.

Clusterin is a glycoprotein involved in apoptosis, lipid transport, and inflammation. Elevated levels are linked to neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers, while low levels may impair cellular stress responses. It is a marker of cellular homeostasis and aging-related diseases.
C5 is a precursor for C5a, a potent inflammatory mediator, and C5b, which initiates membrane attack complex (MAC) formation. Dysregulation is implicated in inflammatory diseases, such as paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria and complement-mediated nephropathies. It is a key player in both immune activation and cell lysis.
C6 is part of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which lyses pathogens and damaged cells in the terminal complement pathway. Deficiency impairs the ability to form MAC, leading to increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, particularly Neisseria species. It is critical for the final stages of complement-mediated immunity.
Complement C7 is part of the membrane attack complex, contributing to immune-mediated cell lysis. Deficiencies can impair the body's ability to fight bacterial infections, while elevated levels are linked to autoimmune conditions. It is critical for immune defense.

The C8 alpha chain forms part of the membrane attack complex (MAC), working with beta and gamma chains to create a pore in target cell membranes. Deficiencies, particularly in the alpha chain, impair MAC function, increasing susceptibility to infections. It s role is critical for immune defense against encapsulated bacteria.
The C8 beta chain collaborates with the alpha and gamma chains to assemble the membrane attack complex (MAC). Like it s counterpar t s, deficiencies compromise the ability to lyse pathogens, resulting in heightened infection risk. It is vital for complement-mediated cellular destruction.
C9 is the final protein in the membrane attack complex (MAC), polymerizing to form the pore that lyses target cells. Deficiency impairs full MAC formation, leading to susceptibility to bacterial infections, particularly Neisseria species. It is crucial for the terminal stage of complement activation.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.

Production of clotting factors

This pathway produces several clotting factors that require vitamin K to function. Without vitamin K, clotting is impaired, leading to excessive bleeding risk.

Factor V is a clotting protein that accelerates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiency or consumption, as in severe liver disease or disseminated intravascular coagulation, can cause bleeding. Persistent activation can increase the risk of venous thrombosis.
Factor IX is a key component of the coagulation cascade, critical for blood clot formation. Deficiencies cause hemophilia B, leading to bleeding disorders, while excessive activity may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Factor X is a central enzyme in the coagulation cascade, converting prothrombin to thrombin. Deficiencies result in bleeding disorders, while elevated activity increases thrombotic risk, such as in deep vein thrombosis. Its regulation is crucial for preventing clotting abnormalities.
The endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) enhances activation of protein C, a key anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory molecule. A soluble form (sEPCR) circulates in plasma and reflects endothelial activation or injury. Dysregulation is associated with vascular disease, inflammation, and sepsis.
MASP-2 is an enzyme that activates complement through the lectin pathway after binding of mannose-binding lectin or ficolins to pathogens. While protective against infection, elevated levels contribute to inflammation and thrombotic disease. Dysregulation reflects altered innate immune activity.

This protein inhibit s thrombin generation in a protein Z-dependent manner, regulating coagulation. Dysregulated levels are associated with bleeding disorders or thrombotic conditions. It is crucial for maintaining proper coagulation balance.
Prothrombin is a precursor to thrombin, essential for blood clot formation. Altered levels can lead to bleeding disorders or increased thrombotic risk. It is a critical marker for coagulation and hemostasis.
Vitamin K-dependent protein S acts as a cofactor for anticoagulant proteins, regulating blood clotting and preventing thrombosis. Deficiencies are associated with an increased risk of thrombotic events, while elevated levels are less clinically significant. It is vital for maintaining hemostatic balance.
Vitamin K-dependent protein Z supports coagulation by stabilizing clotting factors and preventing excessive clot breakdown. Low levels are linked to bleeding disorders, while elevated levels may increase thrombotic risk. It is essential for ensuring proper clot formation and stability.

Protein control system

This pathway involves proteins that restrain enzymes (proteases) which would otherwise break down tissue or cause inflammation. Proper control prevents damage in organs like the lungs and liver.

ACT is a serine protease inhibitor involved in modulating inflammation and proteolytic activity. High ACT levels are associated with chronic inflammation, Alzheimer’s disease, and certain cancers, while deficiencies can lead to increased tissue damage. Its role in regulating proteases is critical for maintaining tissue integrity.
Alpha-1-antitrypsin is a protease inhibitor that protects tissues from enzyme damage during inflammation. Deficiencies are associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and liver disease, while elevated levels may indicate acute inflammation. It is a key marker for immune regulation and lung health.
Antithrombin-III (AT-III) is a plasma protein and natural anticoagulant that inhibit s enzymes such as thrombin and factor X a, preventing excessive blood clotting. Deficiency or dysfunction increases the risk of abnormal venous thrombosis, while reduced levels can also occur during severe illness or disseminated intravascular coagulation.
Carboxypeptidase N (CPN) is a plasma enzyme that regulates inflammatory peptides, with subunit 2 stabilizing the enzyme in circulation. It inactivates bradykinin and complement fragments, preventing excessive vascular leakage and inflammation. Low activity is linked to recurrent angioedema and abnormal swelling.
Heparin cofactor 2 is a serine protease inhibitor that regulates thrombin activity, preventing excessive clotting. Deficiencies are linked to thrombosis risk, while elevated levels may occur during inflammation or anticoagulant therapy. It is crucial for maintaining hemostatic balance.

This protein is involved in immune regulation and extracellular matrix protection. Elevated levels are linked to inflammation and sepsis, while deficiencies may impair wound healing and immune responses. It is crucial for modulating inflammation and tissue repair.
Kallistatin is a serine protease inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective properties. Elevated levels are linked to protective cardiovascular effects, while deficiencies may contribute to hypertension and oxidative stress. It plays a role in vascular health and immune modulation.
This inhibitor regulates protease activity in coagulation and immune responses. Dysregulation is associated with bleeding disorders, thrombosis, and inflammatory conditions. It plays a vital role in hemostatic and immune processes.
Pregnancy zone protein (PZP) is a large plasma glycoprotein related to alpha-2-macroglobulin and elevated during pregnancy. It contributes to immune tolerance and protects the fetus from maternal immune attack. Out side pregnancy, increased levels may reflect inflammation or immune activation.

Tissue and organ structural support

CRTAC1 is associated with cartilage development and extracellular matrix organization. Altered levels are linked to osteoarthritis and other degenerative joint diseases, reflecting cartilage damage and inflammation. It is a potential marker for assessing joint health and cartilage integrity.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
Extracellular matrix protein 1 supports tissue structure, angiogenesis, and immune regulation. Dysregulation is linked to skin conditions like lipoid proteinosis and cancers involving abnormal extracellular matrix remodeling. It plays an important role in maintaining tissue integrity and cellular communication.
Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
Galectin-3-binding protein is a plasma glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, immune defense, and viral response. High circulating levels are markers of immune activation and chronic inflammation. It has been associated with cancer and viral infections.
Gelsolin is an actin-binding protein involved in cytoskeletal organization and cellular motility. It plays a role in immune responses and tissue repair, with altered levels associated with neurodegeneration, inflammation, and sepsis. It is important for maintaining cellular integrity.
Lumican is a proteoglycan involved in extracellular matrix organization and collagen fibril formation. Dysregulated levels are associated with fibrosis, inflammation, and cancer, reflecting tissue remodeling and repair processes. It is essential for maintaining connective tissue structure and integrity.

Plastin-2 (L-plastin) is an actin-bundling protein normally expressed in white blood cells. It may be released into plasma during strong immune activation or cell damage. Elevated levels indicate heightened immune activity or leukocyte turnover.
Proteoglycan 4, also known as lubricin, is critical for joint lubrication and cartilage protection. Deficiencies are linked to osteoarthritis and joint degeneration, while elevated levels may indicate tissue injury. It is essential for joint health and mobility.
Tenascin-C is an extracellular matrix protein produced during tissue injury, inflammation, and repair. Normally scarce in circulation, it s appearance reflects active tissue remodeling or fibrosis. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory and fibrotic diseases.
Trans-OH-proline is a marker of collagen turnover, reflecting connective tissue metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with increased collagen breakdown, as seen in bone disorders, liver fibrosis, and connective tissue diseases. It is a valuable indicator of tissue remodeling and systemic collagen metabolism.
Vitronectin is a glycoprotein involved in cell adhesion, tissue remodeling, and regulation of blood clot formation. Elevated levels are associated with fibrosis, cancer progression, and inflammatory conditions. It is a key marker for extracellular matrix integrity and wound healing.
X aa-pro dipeptidase is an enzyme involved in proline metabolism and collagen degradation. Elevated activity is associated with increased tissue remodeling or metabolic stress, while deficiencies may impair collagen turnover. It is important for connective tissue maintenance and amino acid metabolism.

Urea Cycle

This pathway converts ammonia, a toxic byproduct of protein metabolism, into urea that can be safely excreted in urine. Disruption can lead to dangerous ammonia buildup.

Acetyl-ornithine is a derivative of ornithine, an amino acid involved in the urea cycle, which regulates nitrogen metabolism and ammonia detoxification. Abnormal levels may indicate disturbances in urea cycle function, potentially contributing to hyperammonemia or metabolic dysfunctions in the liver. It may also reflect broader disruptions in amino acid metabolism related to malnutrition or inborn errors of metabolism.
Arginine is a semi-essential amino acid crucial for nitric oxide production, immune function, and wound healing. Deficiencies are associated with impaired endothelial function, increased cardiovascular risk, and immune suppression, while excessive levels can exacerbate certain metabolic disorders. It is vital for maintaining vascular and metabolic health.
Asparagine is a non-essential amino acid involved in protein synthesis and amino acid metabolism. Dysregulated levels may indicate hepatic or metabolic dysfunction, and its role in energy balance and stress responses makes it critical in cellular health. Alterations in asparagine metabolism are also being explored in cancer biology.
Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid involved in the urea cycle, neurotransmission, and energy metabolism. Dysregulation can reflect liver dysfunction or altered energy pathways, with potential implications for fatigue and metabolic disorders. It supports ammonia detoxification and cellular energy production.

Citrulline is an amino acid involved in the urea cycle and nitric oxide production. Elevated levels may indicate intestinal dysfunction or metabolic disorders, while low levels are associated with impaired nitrogen balance and urea cycle defects. It is essential for detoxifying ammonia and supporting vascular health.
Glutamine is a versatile amino acid involved in protein synthesis, nitrogen transport, and immune cell function. Elevated levels may indicate metabolic stress or liver dysfunction, while low levels are associated with immune suppression and muscle wasting. It is essential for maintaining nitrogen balance and supporting immune health.
Ornithine is an amino acid central to the urea cycle, aiding in ammonia detoxification and polyamine synthesis. Elevated levels may indicate urea cycle disorders or liver dysfunction, while low levels can impair detoxification processes. It plays a vital role in nitrogen balance and metabolic health.

Vascular Inflammation

ADGRF5 is a receptor involved in cell adhesion, signaling, and tissue development, particularly in the cardiovascular and immune systems. Dysregulation of this receptor has been implicated in hyper tension, vascular integrity disorders, and certain cancers. It s role in inflammatory pathways suggests potential relevance in autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases.
Cadherin-5 is an endothelial cell adhesion protein crucial for vascular integrity and permeability. Dysregulated levels are implicated in vascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and angiogenesis-related cancers, as well as inflammation-induced endothelial damage. It is essential for maintaining endothelial barrier function and tissue repair.
CD44 is a cell-surface glycoprotein that mediates adhesion to the extracellular matrix and binding to hyaluronic acid. A soluble form circulates in plasma and reflects immune activation or tissue remodeling. Elevated levels are associated with cancer, inflammation, and high cell turnover.
CD5L is a glycoprotein involved in immune regulation and lipid metabolism. Elevated levels are associated with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atherosclerosis and autoimmune disorders, while low levels may impair immune function. It plays a role in modulating inflammation and immune responses.
The endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) enhances activation of protein C, a key anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory molecule. A soluble form (sEPCR) circulates in plasma and reflects endothelial activation or injury. Dysregulation is associated with vascular disease, inflammation, and sepsis.

Fibronectin is a glycoprotein involved in wound healing, cell adhesion, and extracellular matrix organization. Elevated levels are linked to cancer, fibrosis, and inflammation, while deficiencies can impair tissue repair. It is crucial for maintaining cellular structure and promoting healing.
This molecule facilitates leukocyte adhesion and migration during immune responses. Elevated levels are associated with inflammation, atherosclerosis, and autoimmune diseases. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and endothelial function.
L-selectin is an adhesion molecule that guides leukocyte migration to sites of inflammation or injury. Elevated levels are linked to chronic inflammatory conditions and immune dysregulation, while low levels may impair immune surveillance. It is critical for immune cell trafficking and inflammatory responses.
Von Willebrand factor is a glycoprotein essential for platelet adhesion and blood clot formation. Elevated levels are linked to cardiovascular diseases and inflammation, while deficiencies cause bleeding disorders such as von Willebrand disease. It is a critical marker for assessing coagulation and vascular health.

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